The energy intensity target in China’s 11th Five-Year Plan period—Local implementation and achievements in Shanxi Province

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The energy intensity target in China’s 11th Five-Year Plan period—Local
implementation and achievements in Shanxi Province
Daisheng Zhang	a,n, Kristin Aunan	b,a	, Hans Martin Seip	a,b	, Haakon Vennemo	c	
aDepartment of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, NorwaybCenter for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo (CICERO), P.O. Box 1129, Blindern, N-0318 Oslo, NorwaycOslo University College, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo, Norway
article info
Article history:
Received 14 September 2010
Accepted 30 March 2011
Available online 7 May 2011
Keywords:
China
Energy intensity
Energy policy	
abstract
Facing the mounting pressure on energy security and increasing environmental concerns about air
pollution and climate change, the Chinese government set a mandatory goal of 20% reduction of energy
intensity in its 11th Five-Year Plan period (FYP, 2006–2010). In this paper we use Shanxi province to
illustrate how policies and measures are implemented in practice at a provincial level as a response to
the National FYP issued by the central government. Local policies are described and their effects are
analyzed. We compare reported energy saving achievements with our own estimates and conclude that
the achievements in Shanxi probably have been substantial since the start of the 11th FYP period. The
most important measures taken by provincial and local governments seem to be in the secondary
sector, such as Top-200/Top-1000 program and phasing out outdated technologies. However, Shanxi
has still a long way to go to achieve satisfactory energy use. Further improvement of energy intensity
will require continuing efforts. Although many measures are necessary, improving the energy efﬁciency
in heavy industries and reducing the dependence on these industries should be particularly effective.
&2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.	
1. Introduction
Since 1978, China has experienced rapid industrialization and
a transition from a centrally planned economy toward a market-
oriented economy that is increasingly more integrated in the
world. The average gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate
was 10% per year from 1978 to 2008 and China alone accounted
for nearly three-quarters of global primary energy consumption
growth in 2008. The rapid growth has brought China’s primary
energy consumption up to a level comparable to the so far largest
consumer in the world, USA (BP, 2010). High primary energy
consumption has imposed increasing pressure on natural
resources. According toBP (2010), China’s proven reserves of coal
at the end of 2009 were 14% of the world total, that of oil and gas
only 1%. There are additional reserves in oil shale, oil sand and
coal-bed methane, but the amounts and potential are uncertain.
China’s increasing dependence on imports of oil, coal, iron ore and
other key commodities has been well-documented in interna-
tional media. In 2009, 52% of China’s oil demand was supplied by
imports (US-EIA, 2010). According to the Reference Scenario
prediction of World Energy Outlook 2009 (IEA, 2009), China will
overtake the United States soon after 2025 to become the world’s
biggest spender on oil and gas imports (in monetary terms).
Energy security is challenged by the increasing demands ofenergy combined with low energy efﬁciency and insufﬁcient
domestic reserves of fossil fuels.
Coal consumption has accounted for about 70% of China’s total
primary energy consumption since 1978. The energy structure
dominated by coal has resulted in great impacts and pressures on
the environment, which have caused considerable international
and domestic concerns (Gan, 1998;Economy, 2007;Vennemo
et al., 2009). The World Energy Outlook (IEA, 2009) predicts in its
Reference Scenario, that three-quarters of the increase of the
energy-related CO	
2emission in the period from 2007 to 2030 will
come from China.
Facing the mounting pressure on energy security and increas-
ing environmental concerns, the Chinese government has
initiated many efforts to promote energy conservation and energy
efﬁciency, and to control the environmental problems. Since the
early 1980s, a series of national plans, policies and laws have been
enacted. At the very beginning of the 1980s the Chinese central
government announced that it would lay equal emphasis on
development of energy supplies and energy conservation, with
the latter assuming a higher priority in the short term (Sinton
et al., 1998). Thanks to many governmental regulations and
ﬁnancial incentives
1(addressing energy efﬁciency, energy saving,	
Contents lists available atScienceDirect
journal homepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol	
Energy Policy	
0301-4215/$ - see front matter&2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.03.085
nCorresponding author. Tel.:þ47 22 85 54 21; fax:þ47 22 85 54 44.
E-mail address:daisheng.zhang@kjemi.uio.no (D. Zhang).	
1In 1981, State Planning Commission, State Economic Commission, State
Energy Commission, Ministry of Finance and State Administration of Materials and
Equipment jointly issued theImplementation Measures of Surcharging the Prices on
Surpassing Quota Fuel Consumption; in 1986, Ministry of Finance issued the	
Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–4124

energy structure and technology development), and to some
extent because of the technological improvements inherent in a
growing economy, China was able to limit energy demand growth
to less than half of the GDP growth from 1980 to 2001 (Levine
et al., 2009). Recently, a new so-called ‘‘scientiﬁc development’’
concept was proposed to achieve a harmonious society and a
balanced relationship between humans and nature (Fu et al.,
2007). In August 2008, the National Energy Administration (NEA)
was formally established, replacing the Energy Bureau under the
National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), which
was established in 2003. Lately (in January 2010), the National
Energy Commission (NEC), a high-level discussion and coordina-
tion body headed by premier Wen Jiabao, replaced National
Energy Leading Group which was established in 2005, implying
that higher priority should be given to energy saving. This is also
reﬂected in China’s development goals. In the 11th FYP for
Economic and Social Development (NDRC, 2006), mandatory
goals for energy saving for the 2006–2010 period are stated.
Energy consumption per unit of GDP should decline by 20% by
2010 compared with that of the end of the 10th FYP period
(2005).
However, the plan was widely considered to be too ambitious,
considering that energy consumption had grown more rapidly
than GDP in the period 2001–2005 (Lin et al., 2008). Furthermore,
China’s 10th FYP had also set goals for environmental protection
(in the main plan) and energy intensity (in the Special Energy
Development Plan of the 10th FYP), but they were not achieved
(MEP, 2007). There was general agreement that it would be
impossible to achieve the new goals without the strong involve-
ment of provincial and local governments. The problem was how
local authorities would contribute, considering that, in China,
environmental efforts have lacked effectiveness, resulting in an
implementation gap, and that the biggest obstacles to environ-
mental policy implementation are at the local level (OECD, 2006).
In this paper we use Shanxi province as a case to illustrate how
provincial governments attempt to reach the 11th FYP energy
saving goal set by central government. We particularly look at
local policies aimed at contributing to the national goals on
energy intensity. The paper describes energy conservation prior
to and in the 11th FYP period in Shanxi. It describes the major
policies and policy changes that seem to have been instrumental
to the increased success of the 11th FYP as compared to previous
FYPs. Achievements are compared to national results, the latter
brieﬂy described in Section 5.1. A later paper will describe efforts
and achievements in environmental protection.
2. Energy conservation prior to 11th FYP in China
2.1. The national energy conservation
From the initiation of ‘reforming and opening’ in 1978–2002
energy use in China grew at a much lower rate than GDP, with
average rates of growth of 4.2% and 9.7% for energy use and GDP,
respectively. The energy intensity of China’s GDP fell continuously
until 2001 and the elasticity of energy use with respect to GDP
was less than 0.5 on average over the period (seeFig. 1). However,
since China’s entry into the World Trade Organization in
2001 energy use has grown very rapidly—over the four years
2002–2005 total energy consumption grew by 49% (14% per
annum), with GDP growth of 10.5% per annum. Some argue that
the apparent excessive growth in energy consumption may partlybe linked to energy consumption and production being under-
reported in the ﬁve years prior to 2002 (Sinton and Fridley, 2000;
Sinton, 2001;Sinton and Fridley, 2002;Vennemo et al., 2009).
In 1998 there was a major change in the statistical coverage as
compared with 1997. Before 1998, China’s statistical data on
industrial sub-sectors covered enterprises with independent
accounting systems at or above township level, but since 1998
data covers industrial enterprises above a certain size (see details
inZhao et al. (2010)). Meanwhile, a campaign to close small
mines for safety, economic, and environmental reasons began in
1998. Reportedly, 23,000 small mines were closed by May 1999
(Sinton and Fridley, 2000). However, there were indications that
many closed mines reopened in secret and that substantial coal
use disappeared from ofﬁcial statistics (Sinton and Fridley, 2002).
China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2010	
(NBS, 2011a) revised the
total energy consumption data for 1998 and 1999 inChina Energy
Statistical Yearbook 1997–1999(NBS, 2000) by an additional 40
and 104 million tonnes, respectively. See the dotted line inFig. 1
for revised elasticity ratio of energy consumption. The revision
conﬁrms the suspected previous under-reporting, and demon-
strates that China’s energy statistics should be treated with
cautiousness.
This rapid growth in energy use was in sharp contrast with
earlier trends. The goal of a 15–17% reduction of energy intensity
from 2000 to 2005 of China’s 10th Five-Year Special Plan on
Energy Development (NDRC, 2001) was not met. On the contrary,
the energy intensity of production slightly increased from 1.47 to
1.49 tce per 10,000 RMB GDP (2000 prices). According toWorld
Bank (2008a)andBP (2010), China’s energy intensity in 2005 on a
PPP basis was 1.5 times higher than that of the world average,
1.6–2.6 times that in developed countries such as USA, Japan,
Germany, UK and France, and 1.9 and 2.3 times higher than in
India and Brazil, respectively (seeFig. 2).
The shift in growth rates of energy use after 2001 had
profound and unexpected implications for energy markets, and
led to severe shortages in 2003 and subsequent years (Sheehan
and Sun, 2007;Andrews-Speed, 2009;Zhou et al., 2009;Levine
et al., 2009;Lin, 2006). If China’s energy needs continue to rise
rapidly, it could affect the country’s energy security, and could
become a threat for the local and global environment. Therefore
the Government set ambitious targets regarding energy efﬁciency
for the 11th Five-Year Plan: over the period 2006–2010, energy
intensity of the economy should be reduced by 20% (from 1.28 to
1.02 tce/10,000 RMB GDP, in 2005 prices), or some 4% per year.
This is the ﬁrst time that a quantitativeandbinding target has
been set for energy efﬁciency, and signals a shift in China’s
strategic thinking about its long-term economic and energy
development. The 20% energy intensity target also translates into
an annual reduction of over 1.5 billion tonnes of CO	
2by 2010
compared to business as usual, making the Chinese effort one of
the most signiﬁcant carbon mitigation efforts in the world today
if the country succeeds in reaching the target.
2.2. Shanxi Provincial energy conservation
Shanxi Province, located in northern China, with a population
of about 34 million, is the most important coal base of the
country. In 2005, the base year of 11th FYP, Shanxi produced
554 million tonnes (Mt) of coal, which is about one-fourth of the
national total; 129 billion kWh of electricity, 5% of the national
total; and 80 Mt of coke, more than one-third of the national total
(NBS, 2011b;SBS, 2011).
Similar to the national trend, the energy intensity of Shanxi’s
regional domestic product (RDP) fell continuously in the period
from 1990 to 2000 with an annual average improvement of 6%.
The elasticity of energy use with respect to RDP was less than	
(footnote continued)
Experimental Measures on Rewarding for Raw Material and Fuel Conservation in
State-Owned Industrial and Transport Enterprises, etc.D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–4124 4116

0.3 on average over the period (seeFig. 3). The average growth
rates of energy use and RDP were 3.6% and 10.2%, respectively.
Shanxi’s energy statistics probably has a similar problem as the
national data. However, the national revisions for Shanxi in
1997–1999 are not available and thus not indicated in the ﬁgure.
Since 2001 also in Shanxi energy use has grown very rapidly.
Over the 10th FYP period (2001–2005) total energy consumption
grew by 12.8% per annum, while RDP grew by 14.1% per annum.
Especially in 2001 and 2002 the growth was high, when energy
consumption grew by 18.3% and 17.2% and RDP grew by 10.1 and
12.9%, respectively. In 2005, its energy intensity of RDP was
3.01 tce/10,000 RMB, which was 2.4 times higher than the
national average and the fourth highest among the provinces.
Shanxi’s low energy efﬁciency is linked to the very high share
of heavy industry. Energy consumption in its six largest indus-
tries, i.e., coal, chemical, coke, building material, metallurgical,
and electricity, takes up 82% of the total energy consumption in
the province, and its energy intensity of industrial added value
was as high as 4.98 tce/10,000 RMB, which was 2.3 times the
national average and the second highest among the provinces in
2005. The rapid growth and the low efﬁciency of energy con-
sumption pose great pressure on the environment. During the
10th FYP period, Shanxi was the most polluted province and
home to the 3 most polluted cities in China for three consecutive
years (2003–2005) according to the ranking of the air pollution
index of 113 key cities under national surveillance of environ-
mental protection (MEP, 2003,2004,2005).3. Energy intensity target for Shanxi in the 11th FYP
In late 2006, the State Council approved a scheme disaggregat-
ing the 11th FYP’s national energy-saving target into energy-
saving targets for each province.	
2While 20 provinces proposed
and were given a 20% energy-saving target, seven provinces were
given targets ranging from 12% (for Hainan and Tibet) to 17% and
four provinces were given targets above 20% (World Bank,
2008b). Shanxi’s initial target was 25%, but the target was
adjusted to 22%, which was proposed by Shanxi government
and adopted by the 9th meeting of the standing committee of
the 11th Shanxi People’s Congress on 26 March 2009.
4. Policies and measures in Shanxi for reaching the energy
intensity target in the 11th FYP period
4.1. Disaggregating targets and planning
4.1.1. The Shanxi Provincial Government decision on strengthening
energy conservation
On 1 November 2006, the Provincial Government approved a
scheme disaggregating the 11th FYP’s provincial energy-saving
target into targets for each city in itsDecision on strengthening
energy conservation(the Decision, hereinafter) (see Figure
Appendix A). Targets for each year and for the total period are
given inTable 1.
The provincial energy-saving target was disaggregated into
sectors. Secondary industry was given a target of 27%, which is
estimated to account for about 90% of the total saving. The target
for tertiary industry was set to 20%, residential sector 15%, and
primary industry 15%, which account for 5%, 4% and 1% of the
total energy-saving, respectively (seeTable 2).
Based on the disaggregating schemes, the Provincial Govern-
ment required local governments to disaggregate the cities’
targets to counties and major energy consuming enterprises.
In order to realize the targets,the Decisioncalls for implement-
ing ‘‘Twelve-Key Projects’’ which are based on the ‘‘Ten-Key
Projects’’ described in the national 11th Five-Year Plan. The
‘‘Twelve-Key Projects’’ are focused on reducing energy use in	
Fig. 1.Energy consumption, energy intensity and energy elasticity of GDP in
China, 1978–2008.
Source:NBS (2011a,2000,2006,2007,2008,2009.Note: Energy intensity is
measured in terms of units of energy use (tonnes of coal equivalent—tce) per unit
of GDP (in 10,000 Yuan in 2005 values).
Fig. 2.Comparison of major countries’ energy intensity in 2005.Source:World
Bank (2008a)andBP (2010).	
Fig. 3.Energy consumption (million tonnes of coal equivalent—Mtce), energy
intensity and energy elasticity of RDP, Shanxi, 1990–2008.
Source:NBS, 2011b;SBS (2011).	
2Targets of 20% reduction or more proposed by provinces were accepted by
the central government. For other provinces the target was decided by the central
government based on level of economic development, structure, current energy
intensity of GDP, total amount of energy consumption, per capita energy
consumption and the level of energy self-sufﬁciency, etc. (State Council, 2006). D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–41244117

industry, buildings, and transportation, and are described in
Appendix C.
4.1.2. Shanxi Provincial Government work plan for energy
conservation
In 2006, the energy intensity of RDP in Shanxi was reduced by
only 2.0% compared to that of 2005, which was far below the
annual target of 5.8%. The slow improvement would make it hard
to reach the overall goal of 25% reduction in the following 4 years.
To follow up the State Council Comprehensive Work Plan for
Energy Conservation, the Provincial Government issued aCom-
prehensive Work Plan for Energy Conservation(theWork Plan)in
September 2007, as a detailed implementation scheme of the
Decision. In theWork Planthe energy intensity target for the
2007–2010 was recalculated to 23.5% reduction (from 2.89 to
2.21 tce/10,000 RMB RDP) saving 51.7 Mtce compared to the
baseline, assuming RDP growth rate of 12%. The annual reductiontargets were recalculated to: 5.6% for 2007, 6.6% for 2008, 7.0% for
2009 and 7.1% for 2010 (compareTable 1).
In order to reach the targets, a series of speciﬁc measures to
reduce energy intensity were detailed in theWork Plan. These
measures include:	
Phasing out industrial production with high energy intensity,
high pollution and backward technology. Total energy saving
should amount to 12 Mtce.
Strengthening the management and supervision of the Top-
200 Program saving 16 Mtce from 2007 to 2010 through the
Program.
Promoting more energy-efﬁcient and environmental friendly
industries, and increasing the contribution of tertiary sector
enterprises to the total RDP from 36.4% in 2006 to 39.5% in
2010 saving 5 Mtce from the structure adjustment.
Promoting the implementation of Twelve-Key Projects, saving
12 Mtce.	
Table 1
Energy intensity reduction during 11th FYP period in Shanxi and for important cities.
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 11th FYP
Target (%) Achieved (%) Target (%) Achieved (%) Target (%) Achieved (%) Target (%) Achieved (%) Target (%) Achieved (%) Target (%) Achieved (%)	
b	
Shanxi	a	5.8 2.0 5.7 4.5 5.6 7.4 5.5 5.7 5.3 25 18.3
Taiyuan 8.3 2.6 7.1 6.0 6.6 8.9 6.4 6.7 6.1 30 22.3
Datong 6.4 3.2 6.3 5.8 6.2 9.4 6.0 7.1 5.5 27 23.1
Yangquan 5.6 2.6 5.5 4.5 5.3 7.2 5.0 8.6 5.0 25 21.1
Changzhi 5.6 1.7 5.7 6.0 5.7 8.9 5.6 8.1 5.5 25 22.6
Jincheng 5.8 1.2 5.7 6.5 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.3 25 17.8
Shuozhou 5.6 0.4 5.6 6.4 5.6 7.9 5.6 6.0 5.6 25 19.3
Xinzhou 5.8 2.1 5.8 5.4 5.0 9.3 4.4 7.4 4.0 25 22.2
Jinzhong 5.6 1.8 5.6 6.5 5.6 8.5 5.6 7.1 5.6 25 22.0
Linfen 5.6 2.3 5.6 4.5 5.6 6.3 5.6 5.6 5.6 25 17.5
Yuncheng 5.82.2 5.5 4.4 5.6 8.4 5.7 9.2 5.5 25 18.8
L¨
uliang 4.3 2.5 4.3 4.5 4.4 7.2 4.4 5.6 4.4 20 18.4	
aNew disaggregating scheme after adjustment of the target of 25% reduction to 22% is not available.bAggregated rate for the ﬁrst four years.	
Table 2
Disaggregating scheme of provincial energy-saving targets for sectors.
11th FYP 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Target (%) Share (%)	
a	Target (%) Target (%) Target (%) Target (%) Target (%)
Whole province 25 1005.8 5.7 5.6 5.5 5.3
Primary industry 15 1.03.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Secondary industry 27 89.76.3 6.2 6.1 6.0 5.9
Industry 28 89.1 6.6 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.0
Coal 25 11.3 2.0 5.1 5.4 6.8 8.5
Metallurgy 26 30.9 6.1 5.8 6.1 6.1 6.1
Power 20 9.7 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3
Coke 32 11.3 8.2 8.5 7.9 6.5 6.0
Chemical 28 11.5 8.0 7.0 6.0 4.0 3.0
Building material 25 7.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 8.8 9.0
Construction
NewZ50	
b	–
ExistingZ30	c	–
Tertiary 20 5.04.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3
Transportation 20 3.5 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3
Commercial sector 15 0.8 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Government Dept. 15 0.8 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Residential sector 15 4.23.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2	
aThis column gives the share of the total reduction target.b50% energy reduction for new building compared to the energy use in buildings built in the 1980s.cEnergy conservation retroﬁt for more than 30% existing buildings based on the new code of 50% energy reduction compared to the energy use in buildings built in the 1980s. D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–4124 4118

Implementing the national taxation and ﬁscal policies, includ-
ing differentiated pricing policies for high energy-consuming
industry.
Clarify responsibility and strengthening the management of
energy conservation, including: establishing and improving
the energy-saving target system, monitoring system and
evaluation system, implementing the responsibility system
and establishing an accountability system for energy
conservation.
Stepping up information campaigns to raise people’s aware-
ness of energy conservation.
Government should take the lead and play an exemplary role
in energy conservation.
4.2. Implementation of energy saving measures in Shanxi
The actions taken in Shanxi to help reach the energy saving
target mainly fall into four categories: enhancing energy manage-
ment, economic restructuring, technical renovation and transfor-
mation, and supplementary policies. They will be illustrated
separately in the following, while, in fact, they are closely
integrated when implemented.
4.2.1. Institutional developments to enhance energy management
In order to successfully organize energy saving in Shanxi, the
Shanxi Energy Saving Work Leading Group (theLeading Group),
headed by the provincial governor and constituted by 13 relevant
provincial government departments, was established in 2006
(this was done according to a requirement ofthe Decision). The
Leading Groupis responsible for overall organization and super-
vision of energy saving at all levels in Shanxi, including issuing
annual energy saving targets for governments at all levels, annual
energy intensity targets for different sectors and evaluating
energy saving performances of local governments and enterprises.
TheLeading Group’s ofﬁce, which is responsible for detailed
organization and implementation of energy saving, was set in
Shanxi Commission of Economy and Information Technology
(SCEIT). Similar leading groups have also been established at both
city and county levels.
Meanwhile, the Shanxi Energy Saving Supervision General
Team (theGeneral Team) was established directly under SCEIT
in August 2007. Authorized by SCEIT, the General Team is
responsible for enforcement of the Energy Saving Law and
regulations. To do this the General Team carries out regular
monitoring and evaluation of energy use and energy efﬁciency
of key equipments and processes; supervise that obsolete facil-
ities are being phased out according to requirements; and under-
takes energy saving assessment and veriﬁcation of investment
projects. Corresponding Energy Saving Supervision Branch Teams
have been established at city levels during the 11th FYP period.
Energy management groups have also been established in Top-
200/Top-1000 enterprises as required. These groups undertake
internal energy use planning, auditing, and reporting, organize
internal conservation training and awareness activities, conduct
efﬁcient technology development and dissemination, and carry
out internal conservation rewarding and punishing.
4.2.2. Economic restructuring
Shanxi’s economic structure is dominated by secondary industry.
In 2005 it accounted for 51% of the Regional Domestic Product (RDP)
(in which the ratio of heavy and light industry share was 15:1),
while the tertiary industries accounted for 37%. To improve energy
efﬁciency in the long run, a change in the economic structure was
deemed necessary. During the 11thFYP period, Shanxi conducted
economic restructuring by phasing out outdated productionprocesses, especially in six most energy consuming industries
mentioned in Section 2.2, strengthening the approval requirement
of energy efﬁciency on newly builtﬁxed assets investment projects,
developing circular economy and promoting development of the
tertiary industry.
Economic restructuring is a long-term project and might not
have immediate effect on energy efﬁciency, especially when it
comes to restructuring through new project approval control,
circular economy development and tertiary industry fostering,
even though Shanxi has issued a series of policies in these
respects. On the other hand, phasing out obsolete production
capacities may bring quick impact on energy efﬁciency. To reach
annual targets, Shanxi punished enterprises which did not phase
out their outdated capacities within due time by the ‘‘Five Stops’’,
i.e. cutting off power supply, water supply, coal supply, transpor-
tation services and loan grant. For those phased out before
due time, compensation funds were awarded according to the
relevant management method described in Section 4.2.4.1.2.
Reportedly, by the end of September, 2010, Shanxi had phased
out obsolete production capacities of 53 million tonnes steel and
iron making, 4438 MW electricity generation, 33 million tonnes
coke making, 26 million tonnes cement production, 1.42 million
tonnes calcium carbide production, and 394,000 tonnes pulp and
paper production.
4.2.3. Technical renovation and transformation
According to the calling of the Decision and the Work Plan,
technical renovation and transformation in the purpose of energy
saving were conducted in all sectors in Shanxi. In the industrial
sector, Shanxi conducted theTop-200/Top-1000 Energy Consuming
Enterprises Program (Top-200/Top-1000 Program)to promote tech-
nical renovation and transformation for energy saving, which will
be illustrated in detail in the following part. Efforts in other
sectors have been described in both theDecisionmentioned in
Section 4.1.1. and Appendix D.
4.2.3.1. Top-200/Top-1000 Program.The Top-200 Program was
designed to improve the energy efﬁciency in the industrial sector.
It targets Shanxi’s 200 highest energy-consuming enterprises	
(among them, 86 were already included in the National Top-1000
Program), which accounts for almost 80% of total industrial-sector
energy consumption and 65% of total energy consumption in
Shanxi. The industries included in the Top-200 Program are large-
scale enterprises in 6 major energy-consuming industries (listed
in Section 2.2), that each consumed a minimum of 100,000 tce
in 2005.
The main objectives are, mainly through technical renovation
and transformation, to improve the Top-200 enterprises’ energy
efﬁciency; reduce the unit energy consumption of all major
products to provincial best practice levels; have the unit energy
consumption in some enterprises attain either national best
practice levels or sector best practice levels; improve the energy
efﬁciency of each sector; and achieve a total energy saving of
approximately 18 million tonnes of coal equivalents (Mtce) in the
11th FYP period. This target has been broken down to the
city level.
The Top-200 enterprises are required to set up internal manage-
ment groups as described in Section 4.2.1. Local governments are to
guide and supervise the performance of these enterprises. The
Shanxi Bureau of Statistics is to collect and publish information on
their website, and the State-owned Assets Supervision and Admin-
istration Commission uses energy saving as a measure of enterprise
performance. These data are used in the Appraisal program for
government ofﬁcials and leaders in state-owned enterprises
described in Section 4.2.4.1.1. All participating enterprises have	
D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–41244119

signed energy-conservation responsibility agreements committing
themselves to reaching energy-savings targets by 2010.
From 2009 Shanxi expanded the Top-200 Program to
Top-1000 Program, which covers all enterprises with annual
energy consumption above 10,000 tce. The energy consumption
of Top-1000 enterprises accounts for 76.5% of that of the whole
province and 89.3% of the energy consumption in the industrial
sector. The program adds another 1200 energy conservation
projects with about 60 billion RMB of investment and an esti-
mated 11 Mtce saving in to the savings expected from the Top-
200 program.
4.2.4. Supplementary policies
4.2.4.1. Incentive policies.In order to achieve the energy saving
target, a series of incentive policies have been adopted in Shanxi,
including the new appraisal and reward programs and ﬁnancial
incentives.
4.2.4.1.1. The appraisal and reward programs in Shanxi.Apprai-
sal and reward programs have proved important for emphasizing
the leadership responsibilities of local government ofﬁcials at all
levels as well as of enterprises.
Appraisal Program for Regional Economic and Social Development
during the 11th FYP period in Shanxi. The central government
called for implementation of theScientiﬁc Concept of Development
and for a new appraisal system for major leaders of
local governments regarding their regional economic and social
development to replace the old one which was based on
economic indicators only. Therefore the Shanxi Provincial
People’s Government approvedThe Appraisal Program for Regional
Economic and Social Development during the 11th FYP period in
Shanxi(theAppraisal Program) in August 2006. The Provincial
Government has revised the Program two times since then. The
appraisal of local performance is carried out once a year.
According to the latest revision (December 2008), theAppraisal
Programincludes 39 indicators belonging to 3 categories: Struc-
tural Optimization and Economic Development, People’s Liveli-
hood and Social Development, and Ecological Construction and
Sustainable Development. In contrast to the previous ﬁve-year
plans, in which Ecological Construction and Sustainable Develop-
ment indicators did not count in the appraisal programs, 31%
weight is given to this category in theAppraisal Programof the
11th FYP. The Program sets energy intensity and emission reduc-
tion, which are included in the Ecological Construction and
Sustainable Development category, as mandatory indicators. This
means that if local governments fail to meet their annual targets
for any of these two indicators, they will fail their annual
appraisal. In order to assess and evaluate the performance of
relevant ofﬁcials of the local government at all levels and leaders
of enterprises in achieving these two mandatory targets, Shanxi
provincial government in 2008 issued two quantitative assess-
ment schemes. These are denotedShanxi Method of Evaluation of
the Response to the Energy Conservation TargetandShanxi Method
of Evaluation of the Response to the Pollution Reduction Target. The
ﬁrst is described below.
Shanxi Method of Evaluation of the Response to the Energy
Conservation Target. This quantitative assessment scheme was
issued in June 2008 and prescribes the method to be used to
assess the energy conservation performance of local governments
and Top-200 Program Enterprises (since 2009 this applies to the
Top-1000 Program Enterprises) (see Section 4.2.3). The assess-
ment scheme is based on a statistical indicator system and
monitoring system for energy intensity of RDP (see Figure
Appendix A). A total of one hundred points can be obtained for
local governments and enterprises, respectively. Of the 100 points
for assessing local governments, 40 relate to two speciﬁc annualtargets, the compulsory energy intensity reduction target of RDP
and the non-compulsory energy intensity reduction target of the
regional industrial added value of large industries. The remaining
60 points relate to eight qualitative measures of efforts to
enhance the management of energy conservation. Of the 100
points for assessing Top-200 Enterprises, 40 relate to the com-
pulsory total amount of energy saving. The remaining 60 points
relate to ﬁve qualitative measures of efforts to enhance the
management of energy conservation. The reward to governments
scoring 95 points or above is 300,000 RMB; 80–95 points give a
reward of 200,000 RMB. For enterprises in the Top-200 Enter-
prises program, 500,000 RMB will be rewarded to the enterprises,
which scored 95 and above and 200,000 RMB to those scoring 80–
95. These rewards go to the government/enterprise accounts for
efforts to improve energy efﬁciency. Some of these may be used
for personal rewards at city and county levels. Local governments
or enterprises that scored below 60 or do not meet their
compulsory targets have failed to pass the evaluation. Major
ofﬁcials from local governments and leaders in enterprises that
fail to pass the evaluation will not be allowed to participate in the	
annual provincial personal rewards programs or to be conferred
honorary titles. In addition, ofﬁcials will not be promoted if their
jurisdiction fails to meet energy conservation targets. Local
governments that fail to pass the evaluation will also be sus-
pended from the jurisdictions’ new high-energy consumption
projects and from increasing land use for industrial purpose.
Similarly, enterprises that fail will be suspended from applying
for new high-energy consuming projects and from increasing land
use for industrial purpose. Deception in the assessment and
evaluation can lead to criminal charges.
4.2.4.1.2. Financial incentives.In addition to a series of national
ﬁnancial policies encouraging energy saving (see Appendix B),
Shanxi issued the following ﬁnancial incentives:
Shanxi Management Method of Special Fund for Energy-saving,
issued in May 2008, stipulates that government ﬁnance depart-
ments at all levels must establish special funds for supporting
energy saving, in forms of subsidized loan interest rates, direct
subsidies, grants and rewards. The funds shall support energy
conservation in industries, the social ﬁeld, and the construction
sector, and establish monitoring and technical service systems
and management capacity building for energy conservation.
In addition these funds are used to reward cities, enterprises,
units and individuals that have achieved outstanding results in
energy conservation.
From 2008, 500 million RMB were allocated each year from the
provincial government as theSpecial Fund for Energy-saving.
Shanxi Management Method of Special Compensation Fund for
Eliminating Backward Production Capacity, issued in May 2008,
requires a special compensation fund, raised by the provincial
ﬁnance department from the Coal Sustainable Development Fund,
Power Construction Fund and the provincial budget, for compen-
sating investments in new industry replacing the backward
production facilities which are dismantled before the due time
set by government. (An extra 10% of the compensation rewards to
facilities dismantled one year earlier than the due time, 20% to
those dismantled two years earlier, and no compensation to those
dismantled later than the due time.) These funds also ﬁnance the
restoration of landscapes where backward production facilities
are dismantled.
By the end of September 2010, Shanxi had allocated 1.31 bil-
lion RMB to compensate for the phasing out stated above, and
1.49 billion RMB had been rewarded from the central
government.
Differential electricity pricing. With the recover from economic
downturn, the production in Shanxi’s high energy consuming
industries increased very fast. In the ﬁrst quarter of 2010, average	
D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–4124 4120

growth rates of production in metallurgy, chemical and equip-
ment manufacturing were more than 40% higher, compared to the
same period in 2009. Corresponding ﬁgures for coke making and
electricity generation were 32% and 23%. Driven by this strong
increasing trend, Shanxi’s industrial energy consumption
increased 31% and electricity intensity of RDP increased 8%
compared to the same period in the previous year. In order to
curb the unhealthy development, Shanxi further tightened the
implementation of the differential electricity pricing policy
described in Appendix B3 by increasing the price differential for
‘‘restricted’’ enterprises from 0.05 to 0.1 RMB/kWh and for the
‘‘to-be-eliminated’’ from 0.2 to 0.3 RMB/kWh.
4.2.4.2. Data quality assurance and control.In order to assure and
control data quality and avoid local ofﬁcials fabricating data,
Shanxi Provincial People’s government approved and issuedThe
Shanxi Implementation Scheme on Unit GDP Energy Consumption
StatisticsandThe Shanxi Implementation Scheme on Unit GDP
Energy Consumption Monitoring,to regulate energy statistics and
monitoring in both local governments at different levels and key
enterprises. Reported energy saving data from local government
and enterprises will be double checked and veriﬁed by panels of
experts from both provincial and central government level by
considering consistency with other indicators, e.g., physical and
economic output, freight movements and population, before they
are published by NBS. Any false reporting will be punished
according toShanxi Method of Evaluation of the Response to the
Energy Conservation Target.
5. Energy saving achievements in the 11th FYP period
5.1. Brief description of national achievements
China’s energy intensity of GDP has been decreasing during the
ﬁrst four years of the 11th FYP period, even though the data vary
slightly between different sources. According to the statistical
communique´
s(NBS, 2006,2007,2008,2009,2010), the accumu-
lative decrease over the four year period 2006–2009 was 12.62%.
However this was adjusted to 14.65% for the same period, based
on the results of 2nd National Economic Survey according to
Mr. Jiantang Ma, the general director of NBS (Ma, 2009). The most
recent estimate is 15.6%, given by Xie Zhenhua, vice-chairman of
the NDRC, in November 2010.	
3Reaching the 20% reduction target
will be hard, considering the latest estimates, as the country will
have to reduce the energy intensity with 4.4% in 2010 compared
to 2009.
Compared to baseline energy consumption where we assume a
constant energy intensity of GDP since 2005 throughout the 11thFYP period, China has accumulatively saved about 1288 Mtce
from 2006 to 2009 (seeLevine et al., 2010andTable 3).
5.2. Energy saving achievements in Shanxi
From 2006 to 2009, the average annual energy consumption
growth in Shanxi of 5.3% was much lower than the average RDP
growth rate of 10.7%, mainly due to almost no increase in the
energy consumption in 2008 (SBS, 2011). The energy intensity of
RDP declined from 3.01 tce/10,000 RMB in 2005 to 2.46 in 2009,
which is a 18.3% reduction in total and an average annual decline
of nearly 4.9%, which ranked no. 6 among the provinces in China
and it has reached about 81% to the target of 22% reduction. 7 of
11 cities had reached at least 80% of their 11th FYP targets related
to energy intensity by the end of 2009. Based on preliminary
estimates, the energy intensity in Shanxi was reduced by 4.24% in
the ﬁrst three quarters of 2010 compared with that of 2009. This
is only 0.36% lower than the annual target of 4.6% so it seems
likely that Shanxi achieved its 11th FYP target in 2010.
Publicly available systematic reporting and monitoring of the
provincial energy saving programs are lacking. To link the pro-
gress in overall energy saving to the different policies and
measures described above, we estimate the actual energy saving
in individual sectors by using a similar method as was used for
the national level above. However, we use the energy intensity for
2005 for each sector in the baseline calculation. As mentioned in
Section 2.1, revisions of the statistics covering 1996–2008 were
recently released. But, Shanxi’s data on sectoral shares both in
RDP and energy consumption are not available. Calculations of
energy saving in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors are
based on the revised RDP and total energy consumption data
and the unrevised data of the sectoral shares of RDP and energy
consumptions given by Shanxi Statistical Yearbooks (seeTable 5).
The results are shown inTable 4. Because there is no added value
for the residential sector in RDP according to Statistical Year-
books, we estimated energy saving in this sector using data for
reported energy consumption in the residential sector and per
capita disposable income for each year, including the baseline
year (2005). The rationale is that energy consumption in the
residential sector should be closely related to the income level.	
Table 3
Energy saved compared to baseline energy consumption in China (Mtce).
Indicator Unit 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Reported energy consumption Mtce 2360 2587 2805 2914 3066
Calculated energy intensity tce/10000 RMB GDP 1.276 1.241 1.179 1.117 1.076
Reproted GDP in 2005 price billion RMB 18,494 20,838 23,789 26,081 28,506
Baseline energy intensity tce/10000 RMB GDP 1.276 1.276 1.276 1.276 1.276
Baseline energy consumption Mtce 2360 2659 3036 3328 3638
Energy savedMtce 72 231 414 571
Note: data of reported energy consumption and reported GDP in 2005 price are fromNBS, 2011b; energy intensity is derived from both data above.	
Table 4
Energy saved by sectors compared to baseline energy consumption in Shanxi.
Unit: Mtce.
Sector/year 2006 2007 2008 2009 Sum
Primary sector0.37 0.44 2.60 1.48 4.15
Secondary sector (industry) 6.29 17.34 32.67 27.65 83.95
Secondary sector (construction) 0.01 0.030.21 0.18 0.01
Tertiary sector 0.08 0.511.901.652.96
Residential sector	
a	0.94 2.06 1.240.51 3.73
Total 6.95 20.38 34.4 27.15 88.88	
aResidential sector energy saving is calculated from per capita disposable income
and per capita energy use in this sector compared to the baseline (2005) values.	
3NDRC: Energy-saving targets within sight.http://www.china.org.cn/busi
ness/2010-11/25/content_21422305.htm.D. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–41244121

Based on the calculation of energy saved by sectors, the
improved energy intensity is estimated to have saved about
89 Mtce compared to the baseline energy consumption in the
ﬁrst four years of 11th FYP (seeTable 4). Energy saved by
secondary industry contributed the lion’s share of the total energy
saving in the ﬁrst four years in Shanxi. One reason for the
dominating role of the secondary industry is the size of the sector
and its growing share in the ﬁrst two years (seeTable 5).
An alternative way of estimating the total energy saving in
Shanxi would be to assume that the overall energy intensity is
kept at 3.01 tce/10000 RMB, which was the overall energy inten-
sity in Shanxi in 2005, similar to the procedure used at the
national level byLevine et al. (2010). We then arrive at an
estimated saving in the period 2005–2009 of about 72 Mtce.
Both estimates of energy savings for the period 2005–2009
stated above are much larger than what was reported by the
General Ofﬁce of Shanxi People’s Government, 30 Mtce (see
Table 6). We assume the reason for the big differences is the
baseline they are using, which is not available from present
sources. Assuming an annualbaselinereduction in energy inten-
sity of 2.44% in the period 2005–2009, we arrive at the ofﬁcial
ﬁgure of 30 Mtce energy saved in Shanxi (instead of the 72 Mtce
mentioned above).
In spite of the differences, both our calculation and the
reported values show that the lion’s share of the energy savings
in Shanxi in the period 2006–2009 is due to energy intensity
improvements in the industrial sector.
To compare the energy saving in Shanxi with the national
saving, the baseline assumptions should be the same. For the
period 2006–2009 we therefore choose 72 Mtce, although, as seen
fromTables 4 and 6, different choices of baseline may give both
higher and lower values. The national savings in this period was
1288 Mtce (seeTable 3). The Shanxi contribution is thus
nearly 5.6%.
One problem worth to mention is the inconsistency in data
revisions for Shanxi. Energy consumption data in Shanxi Statis-
tical Yearbook 2010 (SBS, 2011) have been revised according to
the newly revised values in the China Statistical Yearbook 2010
(NBS, 2011b), while its year by year energy consumption growth
rates remained unchanged.5.3. Discussion
Three different estimates of energy saving in Shanxi during the
period 2006–2009 are given in this paper. The assumptions about
energy intensities in the baseline are crucial for the estimates. In
the ﬁrst estimate we assume a baseline wherethe energy intensity
in each sectoris kept constant at the 2005 level throughout the
11th FYP period (seeTable 4); in the second we assume a baseline
wherethe overall energy intensityis kept constant at 2005 level in
Shanxi throughout the 11th FYP period; the third is the ofﬁcially
reported energy saving, presumably obtained assuming a slight
reduction in energy intensity during the period (seeTable 6). It is
subjective which method to choose. The second method would be
appropriate if there were no changes in the economic structure.
Since this is not the case, we think the ﬁrst method is more
informative, since it takes into account that sectoral shifts
actually have taken place (seeTable 5).
In spite of the differences between the alternative estimates,
the energy saving and energy intensity reduction achievements in
Shanxi probably have been substantial in the ﬁrst four years of
the 11th ﬁve year planning period. The fact that energy efﬁciency
is very high on the policy agenda of China’s governments at all
levels, is demonstrated by the variety of policies being imple-
mented. The energy data available indicate that these policies
have resulted in substantial improvements in energy intensity.
In Shanxi, the government’s decision to focus on those sectors,
which yield the greatest immediate impact seems to be the main
reason for the achievements. Shanxi government focused on the
industrial sector through implementing Top-200 Program and
phasing out obsolete production capacity, complemented by
incentive ﬁnancial policies. According to reported energy savings,
the Top-200 Program contributed 63% of the total energy savings,
and according to our estimate (Table E3 in Appendix E) phasing
out outdated capacity contributed 30% (Table 6). To achieve this,	
Shanxi provincial government allocated increasing funds for
energy efﬁciency improvements mainly in this sector, starting at
4 million RMB in 2006 increasing to 900 million in 2008. Funds
which reached 260 million RMB for the same purpose were also
allocated from municipal governments in 2008. To further
improve the progress, in July 2009, Shanxi Energy Conservation
Leading Group Ofﬁce issued ‘‘The Promotion Plan on Major Energy
Saving Projects in 2009 and 2010’’ including more than 1000
energy saving projects with total investment of more than
62 billion RMB and a total of 18 Mtce expected energy saving
when ﬁnished. Through implementing a series of policies and
measures, the energy intensity of secondary industry added value
in Shanxi declined from 4.98 tce/10,000 RMB in 2005 to 4.07 in
2009, which is 18.3% reduction (NBS, 2011b). In general the
energy intensity decreased more in Shanxi than nationally,
although from a worse starting point. In 2009, Top-200 program
was further expanded to be Top-1000 and estimated to save
additional 11 Mtce in the last two years of 11th FYP period.
In 2010, further 140 enterprises with outdated technology in	
Table 6
Energy savings in Shanxi, 2006–2009. Unit: Mtce.
Reported total
energy savings	
a	Reported energy savings from
Top 200/1000 Program	b	Estimated energy savings
from phasing out outdated
capacity	
c	
Estimated energy
savings from social
ﬁeld	
d	
2006–2009 30 19 9 2
aSPG, 2010.bSPEIC, 2010,2009,2008.cAppendix E.dDerived from the total minus energy savings from other two parts.	
Table 5
Structure of Shanxi’s economy (2005–2009) and energy intensities in 2005.
2005 energy
intensity
(tce/10000RMB)Sector structure (% of RDP)
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Primary 1.14 6.3 5.1 4.7 7.2 6.5
Secondary industry 4.87 50.7 52.7 54.8 54.3 47.8
Secondary construction 0.35 5.6 5.6 5.2 4.9 6.5
Tertiary 0.40 37.4 36.6 35.3 33.6 39.2
Residential NA NA NA NA NA NAD. Zhang et al. / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 4115–4124 4122

non-ferrous industry, steel and iron industry, and cement indus-
try should be phased out.
Meanwhile, steps have also been taken to save energy in the
social ﬁeld, even though the energy consumption in the social
ﬁeld, which includes contribution from several sectors, is only
15% of the total. Through implementation of key projects and
actions targeting the population in general, achievements in
energy conservation in the social ﬁelds were signiﬁcant and
contributed 7% of the total reported achievements according to
Table 6. The largest contribution is from residential sector.
The potential annual energy saving of 3.9 Mtce is estimated by
increasing the use of district heating and removing more than
10,000 smaller coal-ﬁred boilers and thus reducing average heat-
supply energy intensity from 90 to 40 kg/GJ. Energy saving in
buildings and energy saving in villages are also addressed. Further
details are given in Appendix F.
Policy implementation is the most important issue. It is of
great signiﬁcance that the energy intensity target in the 11th FYP,
as opposed to previous FYPs, is deﬁned as ‘‘compulsory’’, i.e. it is a
mandatory target that the governments at both the central and
local levels are responsible for achieving. Also, the fact that
achievement of the target is tied to a person’s political career by
a personal penalty and reward system for governmental ofﬁcials
seems to be effective. Meanwhile, the economic incentive policies
likely have great inﬂuence on energy conservation. In the current
paper we are not able to explicitly quantify how individual
policies and measures have contributed to energy saving in
Shanxi. However, we have used the available sectoral data in
combination with information about the implemented policies
and measures to suggest what may have been of most
importance.
The World Bank Mid-term Evaluation of China’s 11th FYP (World
Bank, 2008b) attributed the progress achieved so far to several key
factors, which also apply to Shanxi. These include a high level of
political commitment, generally improved administrative capacity
to rapidly roll out new initiatives, strong public support for the
objectives, the adjusted accountability system that links implemen-
tation to performance assessment of local ofﬁcials, and increased
central funding. The policy measures introduced were described as
comprehensive and relevant to the objectives.
For further reduction of energy intensity in a long run, we
suggest the following issues should be addressed:
(1) Energy intensity of RDP in Shanxi is still high. Even though
great efforts have been devoted to improve it, the energy
intensity in 2009, 2.46 tce/10,000 RMB GDP, was more than
twice the national average, 1.08 tce/10,000 RMB GDP. Clearly
there is a need for strengthening the energy intensity goal in
the 12th FYP and beyond.
(2) While Shanxi has taken steps to close small, inefﬁcient indus-
trial facilities, industrial structure adjustments towards higher
value-adding manufacturing as well as to service industries,
have had limited success to date. The share of secondary
industry in the provincial economy grew steadily in the period
2005–2007, but has decreased somewhat the two last years (see
Table 5). The share of tertiary industry, which is less energy
intensive, was slightly higher in 2009 than in 2005. However,
with the economic recovery, the situation may become worse.
According to the newest update of social and economic devel-
opment in Shanxi in the ﬁrst quarter of 2010, the added value of
secondary industry increased 27.8%, while, primary and tertiary
industries increased only 6.7% and 11.3%, respectively, com-
pared to the same period in 2009.
(3) Compared to an estimated 72 Mtce energy saved in the ﬁrst four
years of 11th FYP using the calculation method where we
assume both a constant 2005 energy intensityandaconstanteconomic structure as the baseline throughout the period of
11th FYP, we arrive at an additional 17 Mtce energy saved when
we take into account the fact that the economic structure in
Shanxi has changed. Obviously, an economy based on heavy
industry is the main reason for the high energy consumption in
Shanxi. It results in high coal consumption, accounting for about
92% of Shanxi’s total coal consumption. Thus, further structural
adjustment, renewable energy development and a shift to low
carbon economy are urgently needed.
(4) With the rapid economic growth and the increasing living
standard, energy conservation in the social ﬁeld is becoming
more and more important. More effective policies are needed
to encourage a change in behavior amongst the citizens and a
more environmental friendly life style.
(5) After a minor economic downturn, China’s economy seems to
be back on the high speed track. With rapid economic growth,
the energy consumption has long been increasing. Conse-
quently, CO	
2emission has been rocketing. Therefore, CO	2	emissions should be limited and carbon intensity should be
emphasized.
(6) Penalty and award mechanisms based on the new appraisal
system seem to be an important incentive in energy con-
servation in Shanxi as in other provinces. But, millions in
awards are also a temptation to fabricate data. Thus, good
monitoring and accounting systems are essential.
6. Conclusions
The achievements in energy saving in Shanxi have been sub-
stantial since the start of the 11th ﬁve-year plan period. The
provincial and local governments have put energy efﬁciency very
high on its policy agenda, and devoted a considerable amount of
effort to achieving the goals. Very detailed requirements and
regulations have been issued. Themost important measures so far
seem to be in the industrial sector(not including the construction
sector), such as Top-200/Top-1000 program and phasing out out-
dated technologies. However, Shanxi has still a long way to go to
achieve satisfactory energy use and limit its CO	
2emissions. Further
improvement of energy intensity will require continuing efforts to
optimize the economic structure (in particular reduce the depen-
dence on heavy industry), change the system of public administra-
tion, and improve the personnel appraisal system to provide
stronger incentives for achieving energy intensity reduction.
Acknowledgments
Important comments to our manuscript by Thorjørn Larssen
from Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) and Taoyuan
Wei from Center for International Climate and Environmental
Research-Oslo (CICERO) are gratefully acknowledged.
The authors would also like to express their gratitude to the
anonymous reviewer for remarks and suggestions that improved
this paper signiﬁcantly.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found
in the online version atdoi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.03.085.
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