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Health based air quality standards and objectives in the EU 欧盟空气质量健康标准和目标	 	Kristin Aunan, CICERO

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Air pollution policies in the EU 	欧盟空气污染治理政策	 	• 	Air quality standards and targets are core elements in EU air pollution 	policies (Air Quality Directive). 
• 	空气质量标准和目标是欧盟空气污染治理政策的核心（空气质	
量方针	）	 	
• 	The other two pillars are: 	• 	其他两个核心政策是	：	 	– 	Emission standards and control for specific sources (Directives 	regulating emissions from specific sources) – 	设定特定污染源的排放标准和控制（对特定污染源的排放	量进行控制	）	 	– 	Total emission control (regional/national/ international emissions 	ceilings) (NEC Directive, International Treaties) – 	总量控制（区域	/国家	/国际排放量限额	）	（国家排放限额	方针	、	国际条约	）

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The basis for standards and targets: WHO Air Quality Guidelines 世界卫生组织的空气质量指南是标准和目标设置的基础	 	• 	Based on the extensive body of scientific 	evidence on health effects of air pollution 
• 	以大气污染对人体健康影响的科学	
依据为基础	 	
• 	Updated reviews provided by WHO 	• 	对世界卫生组织提供的文献综述进	
行更新	 	
• 	WHO 2005 (last update) 	• 	世界卫生组织	2005	（最新版本	）

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Main pollutants for which AQG are given by WHO 世界卫生组织的空气质量指南中的主要污染物	 	• 	Particulate matter (PM): PM	2.5	 and PM	10	\颗	粒物（	PM):	PM	2.5	 and PM	10 	• 	Sulphur dioxide (SO	2)\	二氧化硫	 	• 	Nitrogen dioxide (NOx)	\氮氧化物	 	• 	Volatile organic compounds (VOC)	\可挥发性有机物	 	• 	Ozone (O	3)\	臭氧	 	• 	Carbon monoxide (CO)\	一氧化碳	 	• 	Heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants	\重金属和其他无机污染物	 	• 	Toxic organic compounds (such as PAH)\	有毒有机化合物

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Pyramid of health end-points 	大气污染对人体健康结局影响的金字塔

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Acute and chronic effects 急性和慢性健康效应	 	Effects attributed to short-term exposure:/ 
短期暴露的健康效应	 	• Daily mortality/	日死亡人数	 	• Respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency room visits etc./	呼吸	系统和心血管疾病住院人数和急症人数等	 	• Use of respiratory and cardiovascular medications/	呼吸系统和心血管疾病的药物	使用量	 	• Days of restricted activity/	日常活动的限制	 	• Work and school absenteeism/	工作和学校的旷	工	 	• Acute symptoms (wheezing, coughing, phlegm, respiratory infections)/	急性症状	、	（哮喘	、	咳嗽	、	呼吸道感染	）	 	• Physiological changes (e.g. lung function)/	生	理改变	/如肺功能衰竭	 	Effects attributed to long-term exposure/长期暴露的健康效应	 	
• Mortality due to cardiovascular and 
respiratory disease/	心血管和呼吸系统疾	病导致的死亡	 	
• Chronic respiratory disease (asthma, COPD, 
chronic/	慢性呼吸系统疾病（哮喘	、	慢	性阻塞性肺病	、	慢性疾病	 	
• pathological changes/	病变	 	• Chronic changes in physiologic functions
/生理功能的慢性病变	 	
• Lung cancer/	肺癌	 	• Chronic cardiovascular disease/	心血管疾病	 	• Low birth weight/	低出生体重儿

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Criteria used in setting AQG 设置空气质量指南的准则	 	• 	Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (	LOAEL	). Lowest concentration 	which causes an adverse effect (used whenever possible). • 	有害效益的最低剂量	：	引起不良反应的最低浓度值	 	• 	No-observed-adverse-effect level (	NOAEL	). Greatest concentration which 	causes no detectable adverse effect. • 	最大无毒性反应剂量	：	引起无毒反应的最大浓度	。	 	• 	Uncertainty factor (	UF	) by which the NOAEL or LOAEL of the 	critical 	effect 	is divided to derive the AQG. Accounts for interspecies extrapolation, 	inter-individual variability in humans, nature of toxicity, etc). • 	空气质量指南对	NOAEL	和	LOAEL	引起的不确定性因素进行了划分	：	考虑了种间外推	、	人体和毒性的个体差异等	 	• 	Carcinogenic substances: Excess lifetime 	cancer	 risk	 per 1 mg/m	3 lifetime 	exposure (no threshold) • 	致癌物质	：	每	1 mg/m	3浓度导致暴露人群癌症风险的增加率（不是	阈值	）

8 	E.g., for PAH the guideline says: 	The concentrations of BaP producing excess 	lifetime cancer risks of 1/10 000, 1/100 000 and 1/1 000 000 are 1.2, 0.12 and 0.012 ng/m	3, respectively.	 	表	4 	人体研究基础上的致癌风险评估

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WHO Interim targets (IT-1 and IT-2) 世界卫生组织的过渡目标	 	• 	Proposed as incremental steps in a progressive reduction of air pollution, 	intended for use in areas where pollution is high 
• 	在高污染地区	，	提出了逐步减少大气污染的渐进步骤	 	• 	Aim to promote a shift from high air pollution to lower air pollutant 	
concentrations, e.g. by targeting one major source at a time 
• 	通过设定主要污染源目标	，	促进高污染地区向低污染浓度转变	 	• 	If achieved, significant reductions in risks for acute and chronic health 	
effects from air pollution are expected 
• 	如果实现	，	将会降低急性和慢性健康效应的健康风险	。	 	• 	Progress towards the guideline values should be the ultimate objective of 	
air quality management and health risk reduction in all areas 
•	 	指南的最终目标是对所有地区的空气质量进行管理	，	并降低其健	
康风险

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PM

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SO	2

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Ozone

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Setting Air Quality Standards 设定空气质量标准	 	• 	In setting legally binding standards, the following considerations 	are taken into account: • 	设定具有法律约束的标准	，	需考虑以下要素	：	 	– 	Prevailing exposure levels: Risk characterization 	– 	主要的暴露浓度	：	风险特征	 	– 	Acceptable risk levels 	– 	可接受的风险水平	 	– 	Protection of sensitive groups 	– 	要保护的敏感人群	 	– 	Technical feasibility and costs of control measures 	– 	 技术的可行性和成本控制策略	 	– 	Abatement strategies (incl. legal aspects) 	– 	减排策略（包括法律方面	）	 	– 	Social, economic, and cultural conditions 	– 	社会	、	经济和文化环境	 	 
(WHO 2000)

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Key elements of EU air quality legislation : 欧盟空气质量法规的关键要素	 	• 	Limit values: 	Legally binding concentration thresholds that must not 	be exceeded 
•	 	限值	：	不得超过具有法律约束力的浓度阈值	 	• 	Target values 	— are to be attained where possible by taking all 	
necessary measures not entailing disproportionate costs. Target values are not legally binding 
• 	目标值	：	目标值是通过必要的措施实现的	，	而不是通过不相称	
的高成本实现	，	目标值不具有法律约束力	。	 	
• 	Exposure reduction obligation 	— concentrations are to be reduced 	
by a given per cent depending on the mean 3 y mean PM	2.5	 urban 	background concentrations from 2008–2010 to 2018–2020 
• 	降低暴露义务	-浓度的降低是依据	3年平均浓度降低的百分比进	
行设定	，	如	PM2.5	浓度从	2008-2010	年三年平均浓度降低到到	2018-2020	年三年平均浓度的百分比	。

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Air Quality Standards in the EU: 	Target 	values and limit values 欧盟空气质量标准	：	目标值和限值	 	
Pollutant Concentration Averaging period Legal nature Permitted exceedences each year Fine particles (PM2.5) 25 µg/m3 1 year Target value entered into force 1.1.2010 Limit value enters into force 1.1.2015 	- 	Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 350 µg/m3 1 hour Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005 	24 	125 µg/m3 24 hours Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005 	3 	Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 200 µg/m3 1 hour Limit value entered into force 1.1.2010 	18 	40 µg/m3 1 year Limit value entered into force 1.1.2010* 	- 	PM10 50 µg/m3 24 hours Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005* 	35 	40 µg/m3 1 year Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005* 	- 	Lead (Pb) 0.5 µg/m3 1 year Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in the immediate vicinity of specific industrial sources 	- 	Carbon monoxide (CO) 10 mg/m3 Maximum daily 8 h mean Limit value entered into force 1.1.2005 	- 	Benzene 5 µg/m3 1 year Limit value entered into force 1.1.2010* 	- 	Ozone 120 µg/m3 Maximum daily 8 h mean Target value entered into force 1.1.2010 25 days averaged 	over 3 years 	Arsenic (As) 6 ng/m3 1 year Target value enters into force 31.12.2012 	- 	Cadmium (Cd) 5 ng/m3 1 year Target value enters into force 31.12.2012 	- 	Nickel (Ni) 20 ng/m3 1 year Target value enters into force 31.12.2012 	- 	PAH 1 ng/m3 (as concen-tration of B(a)P) 1 year Target value enters into force 31.12.2012 	- 	* Member States can apply for extension in a specific zone

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Legal status of the standards 标准的法律地位	 	• 	A limit value is legally binding from the date it enters into 	force subject to any exceedances permitted by the legislation 
• 	限值从生效日起	，	就具有法律约束力	 	• 	A target value is to be attained as far as possible by the 	
attainment date and so is less strict than a limit value 
•	 	目标值是尽可能达到的实现日期	，	目标值的法律约	
束没有限值严格	。

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PM	2.5	 objectives targeting population exposure 	PM2.5 	暴露人群的目标值	 	Title Metric Averaging period Legal nature PM2.5 Exposure concentration obligation 20 µg/m3 (AEI) Based on 3 year average Legally binding in 2015 PM2.5 Exposure reduction target Percentage reduction (x%) + all measures to reach 18 µg/m3 (AEI) Based on 3 year average Reduction (x%) to be attained where possible in 2020, determined on the basis of the value of exposure indicator in 2010 Average exposure indicator (AEI): 	3-year running annual mean PM2.5 	concentration averaged over selected monitoring stations in the zones, set in urban background locations to best assess the PM2.5 exposure to the general population. 平均暴露指标（	AEI	）	：	以监测站所在区域	PM	2.5	的	3年平均浓度作为评估城	市	PM	2.5	暴露浓度

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Implementation of EU AQ legislation 欧盟空气质量法规的实施	 	• 	Member States divide their territory into a number of zones. In these zones, 	they should assess the air pollution situation 
•	 	成员国领土被划分成多个区域的	，	在这些区域	，	他们必须评估空气	
污染现状	。	 	
• 	Where levels are elevated, the Member States should prepare an air quality 	
plan to ensure compliance with the limit value before it enters into force 
• 	当空气污染水平被评估后	，	成员国应准备一个空气质量计划	，	使其	
与即将实施的限值相符合	。	 	
• 	Information on air quality to the public 	• 	空气质量信息公开	 	• 	Reporting of assessment and information about plans to the Commission 	• 	空气质量计划的信息和评估报告需提交欧盟委员会

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EU Common air quality index 欧盟共同的空气质量指数	 	Pollution	 	Index Value Very	 low	 	0/25 Low	 	25/50 Medium 50/75 High 75/100 Very	 high	 	>100

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Status exposure % of urban population exposed to levels > EU standards and WHO Guidelines (2009-2011) 暴露情况	 	暴露浓度大于欧盟标准和世界卫生组织指南的城镇人口百分比（	2009-2011	）

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Exposure trends 
% of EU urban population above standards and guidelines 暴露趋势	-大于标准和指南的欧盟城镇人口百分比	 	>EU air quality standards: >	欧盟空气质量标准	 	>WHO air quality guidelines: >	世界卫生组织空气质量指南

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Several EU countries fail to meet the Air Quality Directive 没有实现空气质量方针的几个欧盟国家	 	In case of non-compliance: 
对不符合要求的国家	 	• The European Commission send 
written warnings to the country 
• 欧盟委员会将对这些国家发出书
面警告	 	
• Unsatisfactory responses: The 
European Court of Justice imposes fines on the country 
•	 不满意的反应	：	欧洲法院对这些	
国家进行罚款

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China 中国	 	
The 	new	 ambient AQS for 	China build on WHO Interim Targets, e.g. PM	2.5	（	GB3095-2012	）	: 	
中国新修订的空气质量标准
（	 GB3095-2012 	）	是建立	卫生组织制定的过渡目标（如	PM	2.5	) 	
• New Class II (annual) = IT-1 
(annual) 
• New Class II (24h) = IT-1 
(24h)

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Different systems may cause confusion	 	不同	空气质量评估体系的差异及问题	 	
AQI$	Index$value	PM2.5$range$
(ug/m3)	Index$value	PM2.5$
(ug/m3)	AQI	Index$value	
PM2.5$
range $
(ug/m3)	
Good	0< 50	0< 12	0< 50	35	Very$low	0< 25	0< 10	
Moderate$	51< 100	12< 35	51< 100	75	Low	25< 50	10< 20	
Unhealthy$for$
sensitive$groups	101< 150	35< 55	101< 150	115	Me d i u m	50< 75	20< 30	
Unhealthy$	151< 200	55< 150	151< 200	150	Hi gh	75< 100	30< 60	
Very$unhealthy	201< 300	150< 250	201< 300	250	Very$high	
Hazardous	301< 400	250< 350	301< 400	350	
Hazardous	401< 500	350< 500	401< 500	500	
Air$$Quality$I ndex$and$PM2.5$concentration$levels$(24$h)	
China&	Europe&	
heavily$polluted$
>$300$$Se ve re l y$	
polluted	>100	>60	
USA	
AQI
Good	
Lightly$polluted	
Ex ce l l e nt	
Moderately$polluted

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Rasmus Raabo Reinvang
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